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{{Stars1}}
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{{Stars1|Category = Textiles}}
===Fur===
+
{{Textiles}}
 
+
==Evidence sources==  
 
+
 
{{Evidence
 
{{Evidence
 
|Art
 
|Art
|Literature =  
+
|Literature=
 +
We have a few good literary sources describing the kinds of furs traded during the Viking Age.
 
*The Voyage of Ohthere from King Alfred's Orosius. Othere was from Halgoland and traded via Hedeby to London. He described the tribute paid to him by the Finlanders as:<br>
 
*The Voyage of Ohthere from King Alfred's Orosius. Othere was from Halgoland and traded via Hedeby to London. He described the tribute paid to him by the Finlanders as:<br>
 
:"Everyone pays according to his substance; the wealthiest many amongst them pays only the skins of fifteen martens, five reindeer skins, one bear's skin, ten bushels of feathers, a cloak of bear's or otter's skin, two ship-ropes (each sixty ells long), one made of whale's and the other of seal's skin." [HAKLUYT 1893:p.178]<br>
 
:"Everyone pays according to his substance; the wealthiest many amongst them pays only the skins of fifteen martens, five reindeer skins, one bear's skin, ten bushels of feathers, a cloak of bear's or otter's skin, two ship-ropes (each sixty ells long), one made of whale's and the other of seal's skin." [HAKLUYT 1893:p.178]<br>
 +
:Ohthere also says the following about the walruses that lived to the north of Halgoland: "which have very good bone in their teeth; of these teeth they brought some to the king; and their hides are very good for ship ropes".
 
:Owen-Crocker describes the Finlanders tribute as "bear or otter skin cyrtles" [OWEN-CROCKER 1998:p36]<br>
 
:Owen-Crocker describes the Finlanders tribute as "bear or otter skin cyrtles" [OWEN-CROCKER 1998:p36]<br>
*Doomsday book. 1086AD. Mentions martin skins being imported into Chester [OWEN-CROCKER 1998:p36]
+
*Al-Mukaddasi, Shams Al-Deen Abu Abdallah. 985AD "fur of steppe foxes, martens, foxes, beavers, spotted hares and goats" [HOWARD-JOHNSTON 1998:p.69]
*Al-Mukaddasi, Shams Al-Deen Abu Abdallah. 985AD "fur of steppe foxes, martens, foxes, beavers, spotted hares and goats" HOWARD-JOHNSTON 1998:p.69]
+
* The Saga of Erik the Red. Probably written in the C13th. Describing the prophetess Thorbjorg. "Now, when she came in the evening, accompanied by the man who had been sent to meet her, she was dressed in such wise that she had a blue mantle over her, with strings for the neck, and it was inlaid with gems quite down to the skirt. On her neck she had glass beads. On her head she had a black hood of lambskin, lined with ermine. A staff she had in her hand, with a knob thereon; it was ornamented with brass, and inlaid with gems round about the knob. Around her she wore a girdle of soft hair, and therein was a large skin-bag, in which she kept the talismans needful to her in her wisdom. She wore hairy calf-skin shoes on her feet, with long and strong-looking thongs to them, and great knobs of latten at the ends. On her hands she had gloves of ermine-skin, and they were white and hairy within." http://sagadb.org/eiriks_saga_rauda.en
 +
 
 +
<br>
 
|Archaeology=
 
|Archaeology=
*Birka, Sweden: Geijer reports of the following types of fur being found: Squirrel (grave 507), Marten (grave 557), Beaver (graves 539, 619, 956, 968). These pieces for fur were probably used as decoration on womens clothing. [GEIJER 1983: p.133] [HAGG 1986: p. 65]<br>
+
A few archaeological sites have turned up a number of finds of fur.
:Unspun sheeps fleece, probably from a sheepskin blanket, was found in two further graves (731, 942)<br>
+
*Birka, Sweden: 90 fragments of fur and 100 feathers [HAGG 1986:p.52] were found. Geijer reports of the following types of fur being found: Squirrel (grave 507), Marten (grave 557), Beaver (graves 539, 619, 956, 968). These pieces for fur were probably used as decoration on womens clothing. [GEIJER 1938: p.133] [HAGG 1986: p. 65]<br>
:The boar bristles found in grave 739 were probably from a brush. [GEIJER 1983: p.133]
+
}}
  
 
<br>
 
<br>
|Discussion
+
==The tanning process==
 +
After the flesh had been removed from the skin and it had been fully cleaned it is then immersed in a bath of fermenting barley or other starchy material. This makes the skin stable but makes the skins susceptible to water damage as the acids can be washed out.
 +
Oil, alum and vegetable tanning methods where also used in the same manner as tanning leather. These methods though make the skin tighter and less pliable. [THOMSON 1998:p.8]
  
 +
<br>
 +
==The uses of fur==
 +
===For clothing===
 +
Owen-Crocker has written a useful article on this subject and most of the following chapter is based on her work. [OWEN-CROCKER 1998]
 +
{{Evidence
 +
|Art =
 +
|Literature =
 +
*Einhard describing Charlemagne's dress: "In winter he protected his chest and shoulders with a thorax of otterskin and/or ermine.". Owen-Crocker suggests that this fur jerkin was in use by the Germanic people from ancient times to at least the time of Charlemagne. [OWEN-CROCKER 1998:p.39]
 +
|Archaeology=
 +
*Denmark, Hvilehoj, arnders. Fur edging. [HAGG 1986:p.57] Triangular fragment from a fur lined cloak or train [EWING 2007:p.50]
 +
|Discussion=
 +
Earlier graves show some evidence for fur headgear. Sheep at West Heslerton, fur-lined headdress or hood at Dover and a possible otter trimmed cap from Sutton Hoo. [WALTON ROGERS 2007:p.103-104]
 
}}
 
}}
  
 
<br>
 
<br>
  
===Feathers===
+
===For bedding===
 +
'''Art'''<br>
 +
*Bayeux Tapestry. The body of Edward the Confessor.
 +
'''Archaeology'''<br>
 +
*Sweden, Birka. 13 graves show remains of Fur, probably used for bedding. [HAGG 1986:p.53]
 +
*Sweden, Valsgarde 7 & 8. Mattress made of fur, with the fur on the inside, stuffed with feathers. [HAGG 1986:p.53]
  
 +
<br>
 +
 +
===For sword scabbards===
 +
*England, York. Sheep fleece for scabbard lining. [CAMERON 2003:p.3365]
 +
*Hedeby. 5 Scabbards had remains of fur lining. [HAGG 1991:p.259]
 +
<br>
 +
''For more information see the [[Sword Scabbards#Scabbard Construction|Sword Scabbards]] article.''
 +
 +
<br>
 +
===For pouches===
 +
'''Art'''<br>
 +
*Harley Psalter. Beggars pouch.
 +
'''Archaeology''' <br>
 +
*Sweden, Birka.
 +
'''Discussion''' <br>
 +
Ostergärd discusses a method of making pouches in medieval Greenland from sheep scrotums. The scrotum was cut away, cleaned inside, the wool removed, packed with hay and hung out to dry. [OSTERGARD 2004:p.39]<br>
 +
<br>
 +
''For more information see the [[Bags & Pouches]] article.''
 +
 +
<br>
 +
 +
==The use of fake fur==
 +
A form of fake fur made from wool has been found in a number of sites. These pieces of 'fake fur' consist of a piece of cloth with tufts of fleece incorporated into it either during weaving or afterwards with a needle. Other terms for the same effect are "rog" or "flokatti".<br>
 +
<br>
 +
''For more information see the [[Weave#Piled|Piled Weave]] article.''
 +
 +
<br>
 +
==The use of untanned hides==
 +
===Shoes===
 +
Shoes made from a single piece of untanned hide where still being worn in the Shetland Isles at the turn of the 20th century. [HALD 1972:p.165] Some of these shoes still retained their hair either on the outside or the inside. Known as 'rivlins' in Scotland, 'skin-sko' in Iceland, 'Cuaran' in Ireland or 'pampooties' in the Aran Islands off the western coast of Ireland.<br>
 +
Rivlins can be made from almost any large animal. Usually the shoe was made from the freshly slaughtered animal. Apparently the knee of the hide was much favored to form the heel of the shoe.[HALD 1972:p.167]<br>
 +
 +
*Ireland. 10 finds [HALD 1972:p.156]
 +
*Norway, Skjoldehamn. Two part shoes with fur on the upper. [LOVLID 2009:p.134]
 +
<br>
 +
''For more information see the [[Shoes|Shoes]] article.''
 +
 +
===Ropes===
 +
Ropes or cords of whale, walrus and seal skin are mentioned by Ohthere. The walrus was skinned in a continuous spiral beginning at the tail.<br>
 +
A good site about ship ropes is at [http://den.vikingkings.com/PortalDefault.aspx?portalID=117&activeTabID=969&parentActiveTabID=898 Viking Kings AS]
 +
<br>
 +
''For more information see the [[Rope and Cordage]] article.''
 +
 +
<br>
 +
==Evidence by animal==
 +
===Badger===
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Bones of Badger have been found in the Black Earth [WIGH 1998:p.87]
  
 +
===Bear===
 
{{Evidence
 
{{Evidence
 
|Art
 
|Art
|Literature
+
|Literature =
 +
*The Voyage of Ohthere: "a cloak of bear's or otter's skin"
 +
|Archaeology =
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Bones of Brown Bear have been found both in the Black Earth and also in graves [WIGH 1998:p.87]
 +
|Discussion
 +
}}
  
|Archaeology=
+
===Beaver===
*Birka, Sweden: Feathers or downs were found in 2 graves (597, 825) [GEIJER 1938: p.133]
+
{{Evidence
 +
|Art
 +
|Literature =
 +
*Code of Welsh Laws by King Howel Dha. AD c.940. A beaver pelt is priced at 120 pence, considerably more than for a martin pelt, 24 pence, and for wolf, fox or otter, 8 pence. [SPRIGGS 1998:p.95] [HARTING 1880:p.34]
 +
*Al-Mukaddasi, Shams Al-Deen Abu Abdallah. 985AD "fur of steppe foxes, martens, foxes, beavers, spotted hares and goats" [HOWARD-JOHNSTON 1998:p.69]
 +
*Nizami "Loaded on donkeys came the shiney beaver, and the black sable as well.." [AGREN 1995:p.57]
 +
*Ibn Khordaabeh "Regarding the route followed by the tradesmen to the ar-Rus, who are of the same kind as the as-Saqaliba, they carry hides of Al-Hazz (beaver) and black fox and, in addition, swords from th emost distant parts of the Saqaliba country to the Rum-see..." [AGREN 1995:p.57]
 +
|Archaeology =
 +
*Birka, Sweden: 9 graves - Beaver (graves 539, 619, 956, 968) [HAGG 1984]. Found on penannulars (graves 60b, 477, 478, 736, 918, 954, 956) [AGREN 1995:p.55]
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Bones of Beaver have been found both in the Black Earth and also in graves [WIGH 1998:p.87]
 +
*York, England: 4 bones (possibly from the same animal). C8th-C9th. [SPRIGGS 1998:p.95]
 +
|Discussion =
 +
*Fur: Beaver was probably used to trim women's clothing in Sweden [HAGG 1986] and to trim the King's garments in Wales [SPRIGGS 1998]. The beaver fur found on penannulars in Birka may have been from fur trimmed cloaks worn by rich warriors [AGREN 1995:p.57].
 +
*Food: Geraldus in around c.1200 describes the tails of beavers being classed as a fish and being suitable food during lent. [SPRIGGS 1998:p.97]
 +
*Properties:Beavers testicles were believed to have medicinal properties since classical times, a belief that had been repeated by Aesop, Aristotle, Solinus, Juvenal and Pliny the Elder [SPRIGGS 1998:p.96]
 +
*In Britain: Beavers were rare during the Viking Age which is reflected in the price for their fur paid by King Howel Dha and were finally hunted to extinction probably during the C13th [SPRIGGS 1998:p.95].
 +
}}
  
 +
===Boar===
 +
{{Evidence
 +
|Art
 +
|Literature
 +
|Archaeology =
 +
*Birka, Sweden: The boar bristles found in grave 739 were probably from a brush. [GEIJER 1938: p.133]
 +
|Discussion
 +
}}
  
<br>
+
===Cat===
 +
{{Evidence
 +
|Art
 +
|Literature
 +
|Archaeology =
 +
*Norway, Oseburg. Ingstad believes the leather found in the Oseberg ship burial was likely cat skin. [PREHAL 2011:p.28]
 +
*England, York. "the cat skinning was probably small scale and opportunistic"  [O'CONNOR 2003:3233-3234]
 +
*Scotland, Whithorn. "definite evidence of Norse cat-skinning, and indeed specifically for their fur" NICHOLSON 2013 personal communication. (Reference needed)
 
|Discussion
 
|Discussion
 +
}}
  
 +
===Duck===
 +
{{Evidence
 +
|Art
 +
|Literature
 +
|Archaeology =
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Duck feathers or downs were found in 2 graves (597, 825) [GEIJER 1938: p.133]
 +
|Discussion
 
}}
 
}}
 +
 +
===Ermine===
 +
{{Evidence
 +
|Art
 +
|Literature =
 +
*Saga of Erik the Red: "a black hood of lambskin, lined with ermine"; "On her hands she had gloves of ermine-skin, and they were white and hairy within."
 +
*Einhard describing Charlemagne's dress: "In winter he protected his chest and shoulders with a thorax of otterskin and/or ermine." [OWEN-CROCKER 1998:p.39]
 +
|Archaeology =
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Bones of Ermine have been found in the Black Earth [WIGH 1998:p.87]
 +
|Discussion
 +
}}
 +
 +
===Fox===
 +
{{Evidence
 +
|Art
 +
|Literature =
 +
*Al-Mukaddasi: "steppe foxes, and foxes"
 +
|Archaeology =
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Bones of Red Fox have been found both in the Black Earth and also in graves [WIGH 1998:p.87]
 +
|Discussion
 +
}}
 +
 +
===Goat===
 +
{{Evidence
 +
|Art
 +
|Literature =
 +
*Al-Mukaddasi
 +
|Archaeology =
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Bones of Goat have been found in the Black Earth  [WIGH 1998:p.87]
 +
|Discussion
 +
}}
 +
 +
===Hare===
 +
{{Evidence
 +
|Art
 +
|Literature =
 +
*Al-Mukaddasi: "spotted Hares"
 +
|Archaeology =
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Bones of Mountain Hare have been found in the Black Earth [WIGH 1998:p.87]
 +
|Discussion
 +
}}
 +
 +
===Lynx===
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Bones of Lynx have been found both in the Black Earth and also in graves [WIGH 1998:p.87]
 +
 +
===Martin (Sable)===
 +
{{Evidence
 +
|Art
 +
|Literature =
 +
*The Voyage of Ohthere: "skins of fifteen martens"
 +
*Al-Mukaddasi
 +
*Doomsday book. 1086AD. Mentions martin skins being imported into Chester [OWEN-CROCKER 1998:p36]
 +
|Archaeology =
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Marten (grave 557)
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Bones of Pine Martin have been found both in the Black Earth and also in graves [WIGH 1998:p.87]
 +
|Discussion
 +
}}
 +
 +
===Otter===
 +
{{Evidence
 +
|Art
 +
|Literature =
 +
*The Voyage of Ohthere: "a cloak of bear's or otter's skin"
 +
*Einhard describing Charlemagne's dress: "In winter he protected his chest and shoulders with a thorax of otterskin and/or ermine." [OWEN-CROCKER 1998:p.39]
 +
|Archaeology =
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Bones of Otter have been found in the Black Earth [WIGH 1998:p.87]
 +
|Discussion
 +
}}
 +
 +
===Polecat===
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Bones of Polecat have been found in the Black Earth [WIGH 1998:p.87]
 +
 +
===Reindeer===
 +
{{Evidence
 +
|Art
 +
|Literature =
 +
*The Voyage of Ohthere: "five reindeer skins"
 +
|Archaeology
 +
|Discussion
 +
}}
 +
 +
===Seal===
 +
{{Evidence
 +
|Art
 +
|Literature =
 +
*The Voyage of Ohthere: "two ship-ropes (each sixty ells long), one made of whale's and the other of seal's skin"
 +
|Archaeology =
 +
*Cumwhitton, England: Female grave 2 had probable presence of hairs from a sealskin between the buckle plates. Possibly from a cape or thorax. [PATERSON 2014:p.76]
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Bones of Seal have been found in the Black Earth  [WIGH 1998:p.87]
 +
|Discussion
 +
}}
 +
 +
===Sheep===
 +
Although wool is very common this section deals with non-processed sheep wool and hides.<br>
 +
{{Evidence
 +
|Art
 +
|Literature
 +
|Archaeology =
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Unspun sheeps fleece, probably from a sheepskin blanket, was found in two graves (731, 942)<br>
 +
|Discussion
 +
}}
 +
 +
===Squirrel===
 +
{{Evidence
 +
|Art
 +
|Literature
 +
|Archaeology =
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Squirrel (grave 507)
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Bones of Red Squirrel have been found both in the Black Earth and also in graves [WIGH 1998:p.87]
 +
|Discussion
 +
}}
 +
 +
===Wolverine===
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Bones of Wolverine have been found in the Black Earth. [WIGH 1998:p.87]
 +
 +
===Wolf===
 +
*Birka, Sweden: Bones of Wolf have been found in the Black Earth. [WIGH 1998:p.87]
  
 
<br>
 
<br>
 +
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
<nocite>
+
{{Ref|Agren 1995}}
GEIJER1938
+
{{Ref|Cameron 2003}}
HAGG1986
+
{{Ref|Geijer 1938}}
HAKLUYT1893
+
{{Ref|Ewing 2007}}
</nocite>
+
{{Ref|Hagg 1986}}
<biblio force=false>#[[Template:Bib]]</biblio>
+
{{Ref|Hagg 1991}}
 +
{{Ref|Hakluyt 1893}}
 +
{{Ref|Hald 1972}}
 +
{{Ref|Harting 1880}}
 +
{{Ref|Howard-Johnston 1998}}
 +
{{Ref|Lovlid 2009}}
 +
{{Ref|O'Connor 2003}}
 +
{{Ref|Ostergard 2004}}
 +
{{Ref|Owen-Crocker 1998}}
 +
{{Ref|Paterson 2014}}
 +
{{Ref|Prehal 2011}}
 +
{{Ref|Spriggs 1998}}
 +
{{Ref|Thomson 1998}}
 +
{{Ref|Walton Rogers 2007}}
 +
{{Ref|Wigh 1998}}
 +
 
 
<HarvardReferences />
 
<HarvardReferences />
[[Category:Textile Materials]]
 

Latest revision as of 13:35, 7 January 2017


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Evidence sources

Art
--
Literature
We have a few good literary sources describing the kinds of furs traded during the Viking Age.

  • The Voyage of Ohthere from King Alfred's Orosius. Othere was from Halgoland and traded via Hedeby to London. He described the tribute paid to him by the Finlanders as:
"Everyone pays according to his substance; the wealthiest many amongst them pays only the skins of fifteen martens, five reindeer skins, one bear's skin, ten bushels of feathers, a cloak of bear's or otter's skin, two ship-ropes (each sixty ells long), one made of whale's and the other of seal's skin." [HAKLUYT 1893]:p.178
Ohthere also says the following about the walruses that lived to the north of Halgoland: "which have very good bone in their teeth; of these teeth they brought some to the king; and their hides are very good for ship ropes".
Owen-Crocker describes the Finlanders tribute as "bear or otter skin cyrtles" [OWEN-CROCKER 1998]:p36
  • Al-Mukaddasi, Shams Al-Deen Abu Abdallah. 985AD "fur of steppe foxes, martens, foxes, beavers, spotted hares and goats" [HOWARD-JOHNSTON 1998]:p.69
  • The Saga of Erik the Red. Probably written in the C13th. Describing the prophetess Thorbjorg. "Now, when she came in the evening, accompanied by the man who had been sent to meet her, she was dressed in such wise that she had a blue mantle over her, with strings for the neck, and it was inlaid with gems quite down to the skirt. On her neck she had glass beads. On her head she had a black hood of lambskin, lined with ermine. A staff she had in her hand, with a knob thereon; it was ornamented with brass, and inlaid with gems round about the knob. Around her she wore a girdle of soft hair, and therein was a large skin-bag, in which she kept the talismans needful to her in her wisdom. She wore hairy calf-skin shoes on her feet, with long and strong-looking thongs to them, and great knobs of latten at the ends. On her hands she had gloves of ermine-skin, and they were white and hairy within." http://sagadb.org/eiriks_saga_rauda.en


Archaeology
A few archaeological sites have turned up a number of finds of fur.

  • Birka, Sweden: 90 fragments of fur and 100 feathers [HAGG 1986]:p.52 were found. Geijer reports of the following types of fur being found: Squirrel (grave 507), Marten (grave 557), Beaver (graves 539, 619, 956, 968). These pieces for fur were probably used as decoration on womens clothing. [GEIJER 1938]:p.133 [HAGG 1986]:p. 65

Discussion
--


The tanning process

After the flesh had been removed from the skin and it had been fully cleaned it is then immersed in a bath of fermenting barley or other starchy material. This makes the skin stable but makes the skins susceptible to water damage as the acids can be washed out. Oil, alum and vegetable tanning methods where also used in the same manner as tanning leather. These methods though make the skin tighter and less pliable. [THOMSON 1998]:p.8


The uses of fur

For clothing

Owen-Crocker has written a useful article on this subject and most of the following chapter is based on her work. [OWEN-CROCKER 1998] Art

Literature

  • Einhard describing Charlemagne's dress: "In winter he protected his chest and shoulders with a thorax of otterskin and/or ermine.". Owen-Crocker suggests that this fur jerkin was in use by the Germanic people from ancient times to at least the time of Charlemagne. [OWEN-CROCKER 1998]:p.39

Archaeology

  • Denmark, Hvilehoj, arnders. Fur edging. [HAGG 1986]:p.57 Triangular fragment from a fur lined cloak or train [EWING 2007]:p.50

Discussion
Earlier graves show some evidence for fur headgear. Sheep at West Heslerton, fur-lined headdress or hood at Dover and a possible otter trimmed cap from Sutton Hoo. [WALTON ROGERS 2007]:p.103-104


For bedding

Art

  • Bayeux Tapestry. The body of Edward the Confessor.

Archaeology

  • Sweden, Birka. 13 graves show remains of Fur, probably used for bedding. [HAGG 1986]:p.53
  • Sweden, Valsgarde 7 & 8. Mattress made of fur, with the fur on the inside, stuffed with feathers. [HAGG 1986]:p.53


For sword scabbards

  • England, York. Sheep fleece for scabbard lining. [CAMERON 2003]:p.3365
  • Hedeby. 5 Scabbards had remains of fur lining. [HAGG 1991]:p.259


For more information see the Sword Scabbards article.


For pouches

Art

  • Harley Psalter. Beggars pouch.

Archaeology

  • Sweden, Birka.

Discussion
Ostergärd discusses a method of making pouches in medieval Greenland from sheep scrotums. The scrotum was cut away, cleaned inside, the wool removed, packed with hay and hung out to dry. [OSTERGARD 2004]:p.39

For more information see the Bags & Pouches article.


The use of fake fur

A form of fake fur made from wool has been found in a number of sites. These pieces of 'fake fur' consist of a piece of cloth with tufts of fleece incorporated into it either during weaving or afterwards with a needle. Other terms for the same effect are "rog" or "flokatti".

For more information see the Piled Weave article.


The use of untanned hides

Shoes

Shoes made from a single piece of untanned hide where still being worn in the Shetland Isles at the turn of the 20th century. [HALD 1972]:p.165 Some of these shoes still retained their hair either on the outside or the inside. Known as 'rivlins' in Scotland, 'skin-sko' in Iceland, 'Cuaran' in Ireland or 'pampooties' in the Aran Islands off the western coast of Ireland.
Rivlins can be made from almost any large animal. Usually the shoe was made from the freshly slaughtered animal. Apparently the knee of the hide was much favored to form the heel of the shoe.[HALD 1972]:p.167


For more information see the Shoes article.

Ropes

Ropes or cords of whale, walrus and seal skin are mentioned by Ohthere. The walrus was skinned in a continuous spiral beginning at the tail.
A good site about ship ropes is at Viking Kings AS
For more information see the Rope and Cordage article.


Evidence by animal

Badger

  • Birka, Sweden: Bones of Badger have been found in the Black Earth [WIGH 1998]:p.87

Bear

Art
--
Literature

  • The Voyage of Ohthere: "a cloak of bear's or otter's skin"

Archaeology

  • Birka, Sweden: Bones of Brown Bear have been found both in the Black Earth and also in graves [WIGH 1998]:p.87

Discussion
--

Beaver

Art
--
Literature

  • Code of Welsh Laws by King Howel Dha. AD c.940. A beaver pelt is priced at 120 pence, considerably more than for a martin pelt, 24 pence, and for wolf, fox or otter, 8 pence. [SPRIGGS 1998]:p.95 [HARTING 1880]:p.34
  • Al-Mukaddasi, Shams Al-Deen Abu Abdallah. 985AD "fur of steppe foxes, martens, foxes, beavers, spotted hares and goats" [HOWARD-JOHNSTON 1998]:p.69
  • Nizami "Loaded on donkeys came the shiney beaver, and the black sable as well.." [AGREN 1995]:p.57
  • Ibn Khordaabeh "Regarding the route followed by the tradesmen to the ar-Rus, who are of the same kind as the as-Saqaliba, they carry hides of Al-Hazz (beaver) and black fox and, in addition, swords from th emost distant parts of the Saqaliba country to the Rum-see..." [AGREN 1995]:p.57

Archaeology

  • Birka, Sweden: 9 graves - Beaver (graves 539, 619, 956, 968) [HAGG 1984]. Found on penannulars (graves 60b, 477, 478, 736, 918, 954, 956) [AGREN 1995]:p.55
  • Birka, Sweden: Bones of Beaver have been found both in the Black Earth and also in graves [WIGH 1998]:p.87
  • York, England: 4 bones (possibly from the same animal). C8th-C9th. [SPRIGGS 1998]:p.95

Discussion

  • Fur: Beaver was probably used to trim women's clothing in Sweden [HAGG 1986] and to trim the King's garments in Wales [SPRIGGS 1998]. The beaver fur found on penannulars in Birka may have been from fur trimmed cloaks worn by rich warriors [AGREN 1995]:p.57.
  • Food: Geraldus in around c.1200 describes the tails of beavers being classed as a fish and being suitable food during lent. [SPRIGGS 1998]:p.97
  • Properties:Beavers testicles were believed to have medicinal properties since classical times, a belief that had been repeated by Aesop, Aristotle, Solinus, Juvenal and Pliny the Elder [SPRIGGS 1998]:p.96
  • In Britain: Beavers were rare during the Viking Age which is reflected in the price for their fur paid by King Howel Dha and were finally hunted to extinction probably during the C13th [SPRIGGS 1998]:p.95.


Boar

Art
--
Literature
--
Archaeology

  • Birka, Sweden: The boar bristles found in grave 739 were probably from a brush. [GEIJER 1938]:p.133

Discussion
--

Cat

Art
--
Literature
--
Archaeology

  • Norway, Oseburg. Ingstad believes the leather found in the Oseberg ship burial was likely cat skin. [PREHAL 2011]:p.28
  • England, York. "the cat skinning was probably small scale and opportunistic" [O'CONNOR 2003]:3233-3234
  • Scotland, Whithorn. "definite evidence of Norse cat-skinning, and indeed specifically for their fur" NICHOLSON 2013 personal communication. (Reference needed)

Discussion
--

Duck

Art
--
Literature
--
Archaeology

  • Birka, Sweden: Duck feathers or downs were found in 2 graves (597, 825) [GEIJER 1938]:p.133

Discussion
--

Ermine

Art
--
Literature

  • Saga of Erik the Red: "a black hood of lambskin, lined with ermine"; "On her hands she had gloves of ermine-skin, and they were white and hairy within."
  • Einhard describing Charlemagne's dress: "In winter he protected his chest and shoulders with a thorax of otterskin and/or ermine." [OWEN-CROCKER 1998]:p.39

Archaeology

  • Birka, Sweden: Bones of Ermine have been found in the Black Earth [WIGH 1998]:p.87

Discussion
--

Fox

Art
--
Literature

  • Al-Mukaddasi: "steppe foxes, and foxes"

Archaeology

  • Birka, Sweden: Bones of Red Fox have been found both in the Black Earth and also in graves [WIGH 1998]:p.87

Discussion
--

Goat

Art
--
Literature

  • Al-Mukaddasi

Archaeology

  • Birka, Sweden: Bones of Goat have been found in the Black Earth [WIGH 1998]:p.87

Discussion
--

Hare

Art
--
Literature

  • Al-Mukaddasi: "spotted Hares"

Archaeology

  • Birka, Sweden: Bones of Mountain Hare have been found in the Black Earth [WIGH 1998]:p.87

Discussion
--

Lynx

  • Birka, Sweden: Bones of Lynx have been found both in the Black Earth and also in graves [WIGH 1998]:p.87

Martin (Sable)

Art
--
Literature

  • The Voyage of Ohthere: "skins of fifteen martens"
  • Al-Mukaddasi
  • Doomsday book. 1086AD. Mentions martin skins being imported into Chester [OWEN-CROCKER 1998]:p36

Archaeology

  • Birka, Sweden: Marten (grave 557)
  • Birka, Sweden: Bones of Pine Martin have been found both in the Black Earth and also in graves [WIGH 1998]:p.87

Discussion
--

Otter

Art
--
Literature

  • The Voyage of Ohthere: "a cloak of bear's or otter's skin"
  • Einhard describing Charlemagne's dress: "In winter he protected his chest and shoulders with a thorax of otterskin and/or ermine." [OWEN-CROCKER 1998]:p.39

Archaeology

  • Birka, Sweden: Bones of Otter have been found in the Black Earth [WIGH 1998]:p.87

Discussion
--

Polecat

  • Birka, Sweden: Bones of Polecat have been found in the Black Earth [WIGH 1998]:p.87

Reindeer

Art
--
Literature

  • The Voyage of Ohthere: "five reindeer skins"

Archaeology
--
Discussion
--

Seal

Art
--
Literature

  • The Voyage of Ohthere: "two ship-ropes (each sixty ells long), one made of whale's and the other of seal's skin"

Archaeology

  • Cumwhitton, England: Female grave 2 had probable presence of hairs from a sealskin between the buckle plates. Possibly from a cape or thorax. [PATERSON 2014]:p.76
  • Birka, Sweden: Bones of Seal have been found in the Black Earth [WIGH 1998]:p.87

Discussion
--

Sheep

Although wool is very common this section deals with non-processed sheep wool and hides.
Art
--
Literature
--
Archaeology

  • Birka, Sweden: Unspun sheeps fleece, probably from a sheepskin blanket, was found in two graves (731, 942)

Discussion
--

Squirrel

Art
--
Literature
--
Archaeology

  • Birka, Sweden: Squirrel (grave 507)
  • Birka, Sweden: Bones of Red Squirrel have been found both in the Black Earth and also in graves [WIGH 1998]:p.87

Discussion
--

Wolverine

  • Birka, Sweden: Bones of Wolverine have been found in the Black Earth. [WIGH 1998]:p.87

Wolf

  • Birka, Sweden: Bones of Wolf have been found in the Black Earth. [WIGH 1998]:p.87


References

Ågren, Torbjörn (1995) 'Fur in Birka. An examination of hair residue on penannular brooches'. pp.50-58. (Available Online) Laborativ Arkeologi: Vol.8 [AGREN 1995] ^ 1 2 3 4 *
Cameron, Esther A. (2003) 'Sheaths and Scabbards'. In Mould, Quita; Carlisle, Ian and Cameron, Esther (2003) Leather and Leatherworking in Anglo-Scandinavian and Medieval York. York Archaeological Trust: 17/16 [CAMERON 2003] ^ *
Geijer, Agnes (1938) Birka III - Die Textilfunde Aus den Grabern. [The Textile finds from the Graves] Birka, Kungliga Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien [GEIJER 1938] ^ 1 2 3 *
Ewing, Thor (2007) Viking Clothing. Tempus. [EWING 2007] ^ *
Hagg, Inga (1986) 'Die Tracht'. In Arwidsson, Greta (ed.) (1986) Birka II:2 Systematische Analysen der Graberfunde. [Systematic Analysis of the Graves Findings] Birka, Kungliga Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien: II:2 [HAGG 1986] ^ 1 2 3 4 5 6 *
Hagg, Inga (1991) Textilfunde aus der Siedlung und aus den Grabern von Haithabu. [Textile Finds from the Settlement and from the Graves of Hedeby]. Hedeby-Ausgrabungen in Haithabu [HAGG 1991] ^ *
Hakluyt, Richard (1893) The Discovery of Muscovy, with The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan from King Alfred's Orosius. [HAKLUYT 1893] ^ *
Hald, Margrethe (1972) Primitive Shoes. An Archaeological-Ethnological Study Based on Shoe Finds from the Jutland Peninsula. The National Museum of Denark. [HALD 1972] ^ 1 2 3 *
Harting, James Edmund (1880) 'British Animals, extinct within historic times'. (Available Online) [HARTING 1880] ^ *
Howard-Johnston, James (1998) Trading in Fur, from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages In Cameron, Esther A. (ed.) (1998) Leather and fur: aspects of early medieval trade and technology. [HOWARD-JOHNSTON 1998] ^ 1 2 *
Lovlid, D. H. Nye tanker om Skjoldehamnfunnet (MA). 2009. [LOVLID 2009] ^ *
O'Connor, T.P. (2003) 'Skin and bones: correlating the osteological and artefactual evidence'. In Mould, Quita; Carlisle, Ian and Cameron, Esther (2003) Leather and Leatherworking in Anglo-Scandinavian and Medieval York. York Archaeological Trust: 17/16 [O'CONNOR 2003] ^ *
Ostergärd, Else (2004) Woven into the Earth. Textiles from Norse Greenland. [OSTERGARD 2004] ^ *
Owen-Crocker, Gale R. (1998) The Search for Anglo-Saxon Skin Garments In Cameron, Esther A. (ed.) (1998) Leather and fur: aspects of early medieval trade and technology. [OWEN-CROCKER 1998] ^ 1 2 3 4 5 6 *
Paterson, Caroline; Parsons, Adam J.; Newman, Rachel M.; Johnson, Nick and Howard Davis, Christine (2014) Shadows in the Sand. Excavation of a Viking-Age Cemetery at Cumwhitton, Cumbria. [PATERSON 2014] ^ *
Prehal, Brenda. Freyja's Cats: Perspectives on Recent Viking Age Finds in Þegjandadalur North Iceland. MA, Hunter College, New York. 2011. [PREHAL 2011] ^ *
Spriggs, James A. (1998) The British Beaver - Fur, Fact and Fantasy In Cameron, Esther A. (ed.) (1998) Leather and fur: aspects of early medieval trade and technology. [SPRIGGS 1998] ^ 1 2 3 4 5 6 *
Thomson, Roy (1998) Leather Working Process In Cameron, Esther A. (ed.) (1998) Leather and fur: aspects of early medieval trade and technology. [THOMSON 1998] ^ *
Walton Rogers, Penelope (2007) Cloth and Clothing in Early Anglo-Saxon England AD450-700. CBA Research Report 145. Council for British Archaeology. [WALTON ROGERS 2007] ^ *
Wigh, Bengt (1998) Animal Bones from the Viking Town of Birka, Sweden In Cameron, Esther A. (ed.) (1998) Leather and fur: aspects of early medieval trade and technology. [WIGH 1998] ^ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 *