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{{Archery}}Arrows would have been made from suitable locally available materials. Although we have found thousands of arrow heads, we have very few finds of arrow shafts. Because of this paucity of evidence we are forced to look earlier in time to determine how arrows were constructed and here we consider evidence from the late Roman period to the end of Regia’s periodthe Viking Age.<br>Old English had There were a number of words in Old English for arrowarrows: earh, arwe, flā, flān, wifel, strǣl, strǣle . [Manley 1985: p.225]<br>

''For a full list of finds see the please refer to [[Bows and Arrow Shafts found in Western EuropeCatalogue of Archery Evidence]] page.''<br><br>

The arrow shaft just below the nock was often bound with twine (sinew or hemp) to help stop the arrow shaft from splitting. == =Flights===Taken from the pinion feathers of large birds such as geese, swans or eagles. [Paulsen 1999] Eagles (sea eagles more popular in Denmark) - Finish story?. Arrows from the Viking Age seen to use the traditional three feather style. They were probably cut long and low (Dublin arrow had fletching’s 12cm long). <br>Most were attached to the arrow shaft in ‘European’ style with a cock feather mounted at 90o to the cut of the nock and two other flights attached equidistantly around the arrow shaft. <br>Flights were attached straight, with no spiralling, and each of the 3 flights coming from the same wing side of the bird. So either all left-wing feathers or all right-wing feathers. <br><gallery mode=Packed heights=200px style="Padding-left:30px; text-align:left;">Archery - Flights - European (Gav).jpg|European style flights as seen from the nocked end of the arrow.</gallery>Flights were usually attached to the arrow shaft by twine although sometimes they were simply glued to the arrow shaft using a glue such as birch tar (Hedeby & Snohetta, Norway). The most common twine used seems to have been of sinew.*Sinew:*Oppdal, Norway, dated 400-600AD, on pine shafts (Halpin) or birch (Roesdahl & Wilson) along with resin glue [Halpin 2008]:p.47 [Roesdahl & Wilson 1992]:p.249 cat.88. Used for hunting.:*Femund, Norway, 800-1000AD, birch shaft with tanged head attached by lashing with tendon (sinew), then covered with birch bark. [Roesdahl & Wilson 1992]:p.249 cat.88:*Nydam used birch tar and sinew whipping [Bishop & Coulston 2006]:p.206*Horse hair*Linen<gallery mode=Packed heights=50px style="Padding-left:30px; text-align:left;">Archery - Arrow (Nydam).jpg</gallery>The above image from Oppdal, Norway shows the typically tight bindings and the swollen nock typical of arrows from the Viking Age. The number of binds tends to vary between 16 and 64 spirals (Nydam).<br>The very limited evidence we have for flight shapes implies that flights were usually cut straight and not parabolic although it is impossible to state this with any certainty.<br> === Attaching arrow heads === ====Socketed arrow heads==== ====Tanged arrow heads====* Sinew and tar** Femund, Norway, 800-1000AD, birch shaft with tanged head attached by lashing with tendon (sinew), then covered with birch bark. [Roesdahl & Wilson 1992:p.249 cat.88]*Brass wire:** Hedeby. Paulsen mentions the use of brass wire to reinforce the tanged arrow heads at Hedeby. [Paulsen 1999]<br> === Decoration ===Roman examples from Duro Europos show black and red paint on the nocks, [Bishop & Coulston 2006:p.167-168]. Similar painted nocks can also be seen on arrows found at Qasr Ibrim, Nahal Tse’elim as well as Asian arrows. [Brown 2007 B] 36 arrows with red paint on their shafts where found in the late C5th grave at Högum, Medelpad, Sweden. [Rau 2007:p.143]<br>It is possible that the nocks of arrows in the Viking Age could also have been painted to assist in identification.<br>

=== Arrow head development =heads ==There is no easy way ''For a full list of finds please refer to categorise broad-headed arrow heads into leaf-shaped or shouldered (angular) shapes. Many arrowheads do not easily fall into either category. [HALPIN 2008:p.81-85]. Leaf shaped and tanged very common in Scandinavia [OTTAWAY 1992:p.711Catalogue of Archery Evidence]]. Later C11th appears an abrupt change to socketed elongated tapering heads (bodkins). [OTTAWAY 1992:p.714]''<br>

=== Tanged Arrows - leaf or shouldered Attachment=== ''Usually a ‘leaf-shaped’ There are two main ways of attaching arrowheads, socketed or lentoid blade usually with a diamond shaped crosstanged. Generally the socketed type was more common in England and the tanged, more common in Scandinavia.<gallery mode=Packed heights=130px style="Padding-sectionleft:30px; text-align:left;">Archery - Arrow Attachment (Gav).'' jpg<br/gallery>The arrowhead is * Socketed heads are glued onto the sharpened end of an arrow shaft* Tanged heads are inserted into a hole drilled in to into the end of the arrow shaft by its tang. The end tangs themselves tend to be about 2cm long. To reinforce the head they were sometimes bound in twine such as sinew or were wrapped in birch bark stuck on with tar. At Hedeby and Birka some of the tanged arrow shaft is then often reinforced heads were bound on with a sleeve brass wire. ===Materials===Arrows were usually of wood iron but it is possible that bone or barksimple fire hardened tips may have also been used (Manley 1985 p.223).===Tip types===During the Viking Age 3 main shapes of arrowhead dominate<gallery mode=Packed heights=180px style="Padding-left:30px; text-align:left;">Archery - Arrows (Gav).jpg</gallery> * Leaf. There are the generic early form of arrow head that can be used both for hunting and for war. Numerous finds of these come from all of Regia’s periods.* Shouldered. Just like the leaf shaped heads, these are multi-purpose heads and were used throughout Regia’s period. Many arrowheads are not strictly either leaf or by whipping linen shouldered and were often something in-between.* Bodkin. These are used purely for war as they are less efficient at killing unarmed warriors or more rarely brass wire animals than the broad-bladed leaf or shouldered arrow heads. They were absent in Regia’s early periods and only start to appear from around AD 960 onwards. Very quickly becoming the shaftdominant form from then on. [HALPIN 2008:pBodkin heads are designed to split open mail shirts and are used by archaeologists as an indicator as to the amount of volume of armoured warriors.66-70]Some bodkins could be quite long, with an extreme example being a 23cm long bodkin having been found from C13th Dublin).

=== Tanged Arrows - leaf or shouldered === '''Archaeology'Usually a ‘leaf-shaped’ or lentoid blade usually with a diamond shaped cross-section.''<br>* YorkThe arrowhead is glued into a hole drilled in to the end of the arrow shaft by its tang. The end of the arrow shaft is then often reinforced with a sleeve of wood or bark, England C9th – C11th (OTTAWAY 1992, por by whipping linen or more rarely brass wire around the shaft.710) 14 finds; length[Halpin 2008:102-155mm;width:10-21mm* Sonning, C10th/C11th (OTTAWAY 1992, p.710) 3 finds?* Walton, Bucks, England* Carlisle Cathedral, England* Norwich, England* Dublin, Ireland* Lagore Crannog, Ireland* Hedeby, Denmark* Ladby Ship, Denmark* Arhus, Denmark* Trelleborg, Denmark* Oppdalsfjella, Norway* Kaupang, Norway* Birka, Sweden* Loddekopinge, Sweden* Lund, Sweden66-70]

'''Archaeology'''<br>* Dublin, Ireland Late C10th/C11th [HALPIN 2008:p.169] 54% of heads* Trellborg, Denmark C11th [HALPIN 2008:p.169] 56% of the arrows* Staigard/Oldenburg, Germany C11th [HALPIN 2008: p.169] majority of heads'''Discussion'''<br>A range of sites across Northern Europe show comparable evidence for a shift towards bodkins in the second half of the C10th. It has been argued that this may reflect the emergence of the armoured and mounted aristocratic warriors. [HALPIN Halpin 2008:p.169]<br>

* Rundhogda, Norway c.800-1000AD [ROESDAHL and WILSON Roesdahl & Wilson 1992:p.249 cat.88]

For hunting birds such as woodcock or grouse. The notched blade prevents the arrow from glancing off the birds feathers. [ROESDAHL and WILSON 1992:p.249 cat.88]<br><br> == Arrows shafts and flights ===== Shafts ==='''Art'''<br>'''Literature'''<br>'''Archeology'''<br>* Dublin, Scots pine, willow and yew* Waterford* Scar* Hedeby, Yew* Birka.* Oppdal, Norway, 800-1000AD, birch shaft with tanged leaf shaped head. Traces of resin from holding the flights [ROESDAHL & WILSON 1992:p.249 cat.88]* Femund, Norway, 800-1000AD, birch shaft with tanged head attached by lashing with tendon (sinew), then covered with birch bark. [ROESDAHL & WILSON 1992:p.249 cat.88]<br> === Flights ==='''Art'''<br>--<br>'''Literature'''<br>--<br>'''Archeology'''<br>Taken from the pinion feathers of large birds such as eagles, geese or swans and glued using birch tar [PAULSEN 1999]. Arrows from the Viking Age seen to use the traditional three feather style.<br><br> === Whipping ===''Thread wrapped around the nock and flights of the arrow shaft.'''''Art'''<br>--<br>'''Literature'''<br>--<br>'''Archeology'''<br>* Sinew:<br>** Oppdal, Norway, dated 400-600AD, on pine shafts (Halpin) or birch (Roesdahl & Wilson) along with resin glue [HALPIN 2008:p.47] [ROESDAHL & WILSON 1992:p.249 cat.88]. Used for hunting.** Femund, Norway, 800-1000AD, birch shaft with tanged head attached by lashing with tendon (sinew), then covered with birch bark. [ROESDAHL & WILSON 1992:p.249 cat.88]** Nydam used birch tar and sinew whipping [BISHOP & COULSTON 2006:p.206]* Horse hair:<br> ** Roman Dura-Europos?* Linen:<br>** --<br>*Brass wire:<br>** Hedeby. Paulsen mentions the use of brass wire to reinforce the tanged arrow heads at Hedeby. [PAULSEN 1999]<br>'''Discussion'''<br>Whipping seems to have normally been done around at least the nock. Other places are before the flight, spiralled through the flight and optionally around the head end to strengthen a tanged arrow head. <br><br> === Self-nocks ==='''Art'''<br>--<br>'''Literature'''<br>--<br>'''Archeology'''<br>* Snohetta, Norway, birch shaft with tanged leaf shaped head. Traces of resin from holding the flights [ROESDAHL & WILSON 1992: p.249 cat.88]<br>'''Discussion'''<br>All are self-nocks or flat nocks. No evidence of horn inserts. Most are whipped to help strengthen. <br><br> === Brass or bone nocks ===These arrows were more likely to have been used for hunting rather than battle.[PEDERSEN 2014A:p.96] *Denmark, Hedeby Boat Grave - At least 9 arrows were found with inserted brass nocks. [PEDERSEN 2014A:p.96] [PEDERSEN 2014B:p.104, 153 cat.372]. *Germany, Oldenburg - 2 brass nocks similar to those from the Hedeby boat grave. Dated to C9th. [PEDERSEN 2014A:p.96].<br> === Decoration ===Roman examples from Duro Europos show black and red paint on the nocks, [BISHOP & COULSTON 2006:p.167-168]. Similar painted nocks can also be seen on arrows found at Qasr Ibrim, Nahal Tse’elim as well as Asian arrows. [BROWN 2007 B] 36 arrows with red paint on their shafts where found in the late C5th grave at Högum, Medelpad, Sweden. [RAU 2007:p.143]<br>It is possible that the nocks of arrows in the Viking Age could also have been painted to assist in identification.<br>

{{Ref|Bishop & Coulston 2006|x}}{{Ref|Brown 2007 b|x}}{{Ref|Jessop 1996|x}}{{Ref|Halpin 2008|x}}{{Ref|Lindbom 2009|x}}{{Ref|Manley 1985|x}}{{Ref|Ottaway 1992|x}}{{Ref|Pedersen 2014a|x}}{{Ref|Pedersen 2014b|x}}{{Ref|Paulsen 1999|x}}{{Ref|Rau 2007|x}}{{Ref|Roesdahl & Wilson 1992|x}}{{Ref|Rygh 1885|x}}{{Ref|Schietzel 2014|x}}{{Ref|Skre 2006|x}}{{Ref|Wegraeus 1986|x}}