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As the quote from Bede above shows, the ability to catch fish was seen as an essential part of Anglo-Saxon life and contributed to the well being and nutrition of a population, as even in times of drought the supply of marine fish would still be available. This story is somewhat discredited by the archaeological finds of conger eel and whiting bones (both marine species) in Bishopstone, Sussex [BELL 1977]. The ability to produce a miraculous fish is also achieved twice by St. Cuthbert and once by St. Martin. This may be because the fish is of Christian symbolic significance, but in a more secular world there were less legal repercussions to fear from finding a fish as opposed to a domestic animal. [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.164] <br>In the Anglo-Saxon period there would have been a great demand for fish by the monasteries and the rich. Though fresh fish would have been favoured, most must have been preserved. In illustrations fish is often the only identifiable food on the table in front of an individual, who is usually important or even royalty. [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.171] The want of the rich and the monasteries for fish is recorded in the rents, keeping careful track of how much fish they are all entitled to [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.165].<br>
From contemporary texts and archaeological finds we have good understanding of the species of fish caught and consumed during the Anglo-Saxon period. How they were caught, prepared, preserved and distributed is a bit more uncertain. But these issues are investigated below and all have much more scope for future research.<br>
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==Freshwater Fish==
We know from [[Aelfric’s Colloquy:fish#Fisherman|Aelfric’s Colloquy]] that the Anglo-Saxon fisherman would catch “whatever was available”. Aelfric’s fisherman lists pike, minnows, dace, lamprey and sprats. To this list can be also be added carp. <br>
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==Migratory Fish==
These are fish that travel between the sea and fresh water rivers and lakes as part of its lifecycle. Examples include the European eel, salmon, trout, smelt and flatfish. The fisherman from [[Aelfric’s Colloquy:fish#Fisherman|Aelfric’s Colloquy]] mentions catching eels and smelt in rivers and salmon and flatfish in the sea.<br>
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==Marine Fish==
Again the fisherman from [[Aelfric’s Colloquy:fish#Fisherman|Aelfric’s Colloquy]] helpfully supplies us with a list of marine fish that he catches: herring, salmon, sturgeon, and plaice. The marine family of fish known as gadid include cod, haddock, whiting and Pollock and come from the colder more northerly parts of the North Sea and Atlantic Ocean. It is this latter group that was traded as stockfish by the Norwegians.<br>
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|The Benedictine rule regarding the consumption of meat [BARRY 2003:p.61]}}
This implies that members of the clergy would consume only fish and poultry, while the lay people would have been prohibited meat during lent and on fast days. Although, as Hagan Hagen [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.397] points out, a fasting diet would not have differed much from the everyday diet for the poor people.In the later medieval period tail of beaver, frogs, puffins and barnacle geese were classified as fish to get around the no-meat rule. However there are no indications this took place during the Anglo-Saxon period [HAGAN HAGEN 2006: p.405].
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===Line fishing===
This includes handline fishing, where the line is held in the hand, angling, where the line is attached to a rod and long line fishing where a number of hooks are placed on a line suspended across a river. Evidence for the use of a fishing rod being used in the C11th comes from an Anglo-Saxon illustration dated to c.1000AD in Belgium, Damme, Musee Van Maerlant fol. 2v [[T-M:T53]].
The Anomalous Welsh Laws mentions “taking fish on hooks”. And a C10th legend mentions a fishing line of hemp being sold in Lincoln. [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.158]
The large fish hooks found at York have been interpreted as possibly being used for long line marine fishing. [HALL 1984:p.94]
Perforated antler burrs normally identified as spindle- whorls may in fact have been used for fishing [MACGREGOR 1985:p.187].
Along the coast a variety of stake nets and foreshore weirs were used to trap fish from the outgoing tide. [BOND 1999:p.186]<br>
There is evidence of finds at Birka and Ribe these too were made from nettle-hemp [GREEN 1993]. A tenant of the manor Tidenham was expected to provide a ball of good net twine [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.159]. The Gwentian Code gives values for different types of net with a bow net being valued at 4d and a salmon net at 24d. According to the Anomalous Welsh Laws a fishing net was large enough to entangle an ox. [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.159]
Soapstone net-sinkers have been found in the Faroes [ROESDAHL & WILSON 1992:p.310 cat.316]. In York 2 were found of lead and 1 of stone [MAINMAN & ROGERS 2000:p.2535]. A pebble shaped stone net-sinker from Norway has grooves cut across its surface in a cross, rather than being perforated like the York example. [ROESDAHL & WILSON 1992:p.248 cat.85]
==Shellfish==
The fisherman from [[Aelfric’s Colloquy:fish#Fisherman|Aelfric’s Colloquy]] mentions oysters, crabs, mussels, cockles and lobsters as all being caught by him in the sea. Bede also mentions shellfish and mussels that contain pearls as well as whelks from which scarlet dye is made. This list follows on from other edible species (whale, seal and porpoise), possibly indicating these too were eaten. [HAGAN HAGEN 2006]<br>
At York oysters were eaten in significant numbers much as they had been since the Roman era. Cockles, mussels and winkles were also harvested but in much smaller numbers [HALL 1984: p.94]. In fact so many oyster shells were recovered at York that once catalogued they were given away to visitors of the dig as souvenirs.
Remains of various molluscs have been found at numerous archaeological sites near the coast: Bishopstone, Sussex; Portchester Castle; Poole, Dorset; Braunton Burrows, North Dorset; Mawgan Porth, Cornwall; Gosport House, Hampshir; and Ipswich. [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.169]<br>
More interestingly remains of molluscs have also been found at inland sites such as
Sedgeford (5 miles inland), Thetford (40 miles) [WILSON 1976:p.389], and in smaller numbers in Bedford (80 miles inland). [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.170]<br>
Saxon sites also produce lots of oysters but these are mostly near the coast or with easy access by river to the coast. Deterioration of the roads with the exit of the invaders and poorer organisation meant that oysters could not be sent far. To date there is still no evidence for farming or cultivation of oysters. [WINDER 2010: p.5]
It is often suggested that Oyster cultivation was introduced by the Romans but to date no physical or documentary evidence has been found to support this. Lucilius observation is astute as it is indeed often possible to determine the origin of Oyster shells by their appearance as they are affected by their environment. The average size of the oysters eaten by the Anglo-Saxons is slightly but significantly smaller than those from Roman sites. [WINDER 2010:p.5]<br>
At Poole, Dorset a vast midden of oyster shells carbon dated to the late Saxon period represents between 28.56 and 57.12 tonnes of raw oyster meat. No other food remains were found in the midden, indicating the oysters may have been harvested, opened and preserved (pickling or salting) for re-distribution. [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.169]<br>
No hard evidence has yet come to light for oyster fishing during the Viking Age. Not much in the way of excavated structures or objects. Neither is there much ancient documentary evidence for oyster fishing. Having said this it is likely that oysters were harvested by dredging. Dredging frames today are made from a steel frame with a bag of iron rings towed by a boat. It is said that in the past the bag was sometimes made of slotted cow-hide that caused less damage to the oyster bed. (Winder personnel communication)<br>
Waste oyster shells have a number of uses, they can, for example, be returned to the sea bed as cultch on which oyster spat can settle; used to fertilise (lime) the fields; be used in the manufacture of lime; crushed for chicken feed, shell-tempered pottery, medicines and cosmetics; used as hardcore, for paths and yard surfaces; and used as mortar for stone work. [WINDER 2010:p.3]<br>
The whale became sad where he swam on the shingle. Whale’s bone.”'' <br>
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Feelings of a stranded whale as written on the Frank’s casket - which is made of whale bone... <br>[HAGAN HAGEN 2006: p.165]
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===Whales and porpoises===
In [[Aelfric’s Colloquy:fish#Fisherman|Aelfric’s Colloquy]] the opportunity of whaling is mentioned in the conversation with the fisherman, but does not appeal to the fishermen because of the danger involved, despite the fortune that can be made from it. This indicates that these large sea mammals were hunted, but to what extent is unclear. Artefacts made from cetacean bone have been found such as the sword pommel and comb at York [MACGREGOR, MAINMAN & ROGERS 1999] and a board (the use of which is debated) found at Ely [BJORN & SHETELIG 1940].<br>Besides hunting the other method of getting both whale meat and bone is from those animals stranded on the beach. There is a welsh law which states that any fish, dead or alive, washed up on the beach belonged to the king, but if not claimed for three days could be taken by anyone. The three day rule seems not to have applied in England though. [HAGAN HAGEN 2006: p.165]<br>
The Anglo-Saxon term mereswyn (sea pig) is often mistakenly translated with Dolphin, though the animal is most definitely a Porpoise. Though they both belong to the order of Cetacea, along with whales, they are very different animals. Porpoises are smaller, shyer and live in colder waters of the northern hemisphere, including around the British Isles. Dolphins on the other hand live in the warmer waters of the pacific. <br>
Both Whale and Porpoise were called 'fat fish' or 'blubber fish' and were considered a delicacy and paid a higher duty at London Bridge than normal fish did [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.166]. The reason for this is most likely that the fat preserves much better and would have been a much needed and appreciated high calorie food.<br>Porpoises are mentioned by Aelfric’s fisherman as one of the fish that he catches in the sea, as well as being mentioned in legal documents [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.167]. Bede also mentions the capture of seals, whales and porpoises [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.157]. A miracle contributed to St.Cuthbert was the miraculous appearance of three portions of Porpoise flesh, enough to feed him and his two companions for three days [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.164].<br>
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===Birds===
Guillemot bones have been found in York and may have been a marine delicacy [HALL 1984:p.96]. Bones of various Gull species were found at West Stow and Hamwic. Gulls were also part of the diet in Viking age Kvivik in the Faroe Islands. [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.141ff] <br>
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Look, you would even lose your butter and cheese, and you can’t even enjoy your vegetables without making use of me.<br>
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The Salter in [[Aelfric’s Colloquy:#Salter|Aelfric’s Colloquy]]<br>
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===Drying===
In the cold, sunny air of Norway cod could be dehydrated to a point where it would keep almost indefinitely. In this state it was exported to England [HAGAN HAGEN 2006: p.158], as reported in Egil’s saga from the C9th [BOND 1999:p.185]. Drying can be achieved in the sun, in the open air, by a fire or in an oven or kiln, and where fish is concerned it works better on the less oily fish like flounder or cod [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.275]. Fish dried by being hung on the front of ships may have helped Vikings reach distant locations like Greenland.<br>
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===Salting===
Salting works by drawing water across the cell membrane of some bacteria, stopping them from causing decay. Salting also impregnates the food stuff with acid. Ideally a combination of coarse bay salt and finer, refined salt is used for preserving, as the coarse salt slowly penetrates the meat all the way through while the finer salt quickly seals the surface.<br>
Dry salting would have been more expensive than brining as more salt is required, and the salt has to be processed more. [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.276ff]<br>
Herring was often transported in barrels of brine.<br>
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===Smoking===
Smoke is a complex substance that contains alcohols, acids, phenolic compounds and some toxins, which inhibit bacterial activity and retard fat oxidation, not to mention giving the food a characteristic flavour. Smoking works best on oily fish like herring. Smoking could have been achieved in purpose built smoking huts or incidentally while hung up in a smoky house.[HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.275]<br>
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===Pickling===
Pickling can be done in salty brine, vinegar or honey. Which method you choose depends mainly on what food stuff you are preserving. For fish brine would have been used. [HAGAN HAGEN 2006:p.276]<br>
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{{Ref|Crawford 2009}}
{{Ref|Green 1993}}
{{Ref|Hagan Hagen 2006}}
{{Ref|Hall 1978}}
{{Ref|Hall 1984}}